Fungi in the cultural landscape

 

 

Grasslandfungi

 

Gasslandfungi are fungi that have their main distribution in the cultural landscape, more specifically undisturbed grassland and pastures. The most important fungi associated with such landscapes are limited to a few genera and families. Waxcaps (Hygrocybe s.l.), Pinkgills (Entoloma), Earthtongues (Geoglossaceae s.l.) and club-fungi (Calvaria, Clavulinopsis, Ramariopsis) constitute the most important groups. In addition, we find fungi in the genera Camarophyllopsis, Pseudotricholoma and Dermoloma. Most of these fungi will disappear if the old ways of farming cease. The same will happen with herbs and grass vegetation, which will change diversity to more nutrient demanding species.

 

Between 20 and 25% of all known fungi are found in the cultural landscape. Looking at the overview of red-listed fungi found in South-Western Norway,  it is clear that the vast majority of the species have their main distribution in the cultural landscape, in particular in undisturbed grasslands and pastures. Finding so many fungi on the Norwegian red list (Brandrud et al., 2015) is an indicatior that the cultural landscape is changing, and that unfertilized grassland is becoming a rare natural habitat. Most red-listed fungi in semi-natural grassland have shown a decline of 15-30% over the past 20 years. In 2011, the first red-list of natural habitats was published. Here it appears that natural habitats associated with cultural landscape are threatened (Norderhaug and Johansen 2011). Both coastal heath and natural meadows are classified as endangered (EN), while semi-natural grassland is classified as vulnerable (VU). These are the main habitats where most of the grassland-fungi grow. In the new redlist from 2018, natural meadows are upgraded to critical endangered (CR) (Artsdatabanken 2018).

One may wonder why so many fungi are adapted to a life in “man-made” habitats such as pastures and grasslands. It is hard to imagine that they have evolved in the short period of time we have lived as farmers. It is more likely that these fungi have existed for a long time on large open treeless grasslands in Europe. Large flocks of different grass-eaters kept the areas open and brought back nutrients in the form manure from the animals themselves. As humans started farming, the wild animals were displaced with grazing domestic animals. The grassland-fungi could survive in the new man-made habitats that were very similar to the original ones.

Seminatural grassland is a natural habitat characterized by a treeless landscape rich in grass and herbs and often with plenty of moss. The vegetation is grazed, and no form of fertilizer is used in addition to what is produced by the animals. Species-rich grasslands have long continuity, which means they have been cultivated the same way for many generations.
The ecology of the grassland-fungi is currently unknown, and we do not know if they are saprophytes or if they can live in mycorrhiza (symbiosis) with herbs or grass. Based on investigations, it may indicate that some are more demanding than others in terms of soil/geological conditions. Some seem grow mainly in base rich areas dominated with calcareous rocks, while others thrive best on more acid soil. Some seems to be less selective and can tolerate some degree of fertilization.

It seems that calcareous areas have the highest number of different grasslandfungi. There is a theory that grassland-fungi are adapted to low content phosphorus in the soil, and that this is one of the reasons that fertilizers have a negative effect on the fungus (Nitare, 1988). In base-rich soil, phosphorus becomes strongly bound, and can thus be rendered inaccessible. The fact that the fungus thrives on base-rich soil, can thus be a way to adapt to phosphorus shortage than a requirement for base-rich localities. Old grasslands on more acid soil will also have low content of phosphorus, which can explain why more apparently demanding species also can appear on grasslands that are more acid.

Grazing is a precondition for the grassland-fungi to thrive, and termination of grazing will quickly reduce the diversity of these fungi. The mycelium can probably survive many years in the earth after grazing has ceased. Therefore, if grazing is reinstated, the fungi may start fructification again. Fertilization, on the other hand, is a much more devastating and irreversible process changing the grasslands forever. The moss-cover, which is an important in regulating the moisture, will change character and eventually disappear. The vast majority of grassland-fungi stop fructification already the year after one has started fertilizing (Arnold 1989). If one stops fertilizing after a while, it is unlikely that the fungi will reappear (Vesterholdt et al. 1990).

Many grassland-fungi are rare throughout Europe, and some are only known from North-Western Europe. The reason for the observed decline is that agricultural practices have changed over the past few decades. Grazing is reduced or ceased, and old pastures are fertilized or the soil is being processed in other ways. In spite of this, Scandinavia in general, has relatively many occurrences of rare grassland-fungi. Many species seem to occur in regions with much old grazing landscape, such as Scandinavia and the United Kingdom.

 

 

Grasslandfungi as indikator

 

Grassland-fungi has great value as an indicator of ancient and valuable cultural landscapes. The diversity of grassland-fungi and the occurrence of rare and red-listed species provide to be a good indication of the age and continuity of the cultural landscape. Only pastures that have been kept in shape for generations without soil cultivation and artificial fertilizer will show a wide variety of these fungi. Therefore, fungi could be better indicators of valuable landscapes than vascular plants. Plants will normally have the largest variety in calcareous pastures, while fungi can show great species richness also in old and more acid grasslands.
Surveys from the Netherlands show that the change in fungal flora occurred faster than changes in the plant flora after one had started fertilization. This is again an indication that fungus is a good indicator of changes in soil conditions in pastures (Arnold 1989).

 

A number of methods have been developed to tell something about the value of a cultural landscape from the number and selection of grassland-fungi. Rald (1985) has developed the simplest methodology which is based on the number of different waxcaps found in a locality in relation to the number of visits to the area. Since the waxcaps are the easiest fungi to distinguish macroscopically in the field, this is a relatively easy way to tell something about the value of the area.

 

 

Vaue

Number of waxcaps after one visit

Number of waxcaps after several visits

Adjustment after several visits

National value

>10

>16

>16

Regional value

6-10

9-16

10-16

Local value

3-5

4-8

5-9

Noe value

1-2

1-3

1-4

Tabel 1. Classification of Danish localities based on number of species of wax-caps found (Rald 1985), with proposal of adjustments by Boertman (1985).

An alternative method is based on all grassland-fungi found in a locality. Each species is given a score between 1 and 8 based on rarity and indicator value.      (Jordal & Gaarder 1993, Jordal 1997)

Value

Score - weak data basis (1 besøk)

Score good data basis (many visits)

National value

>35-40

>50-60

Regional value

15      (35-40)*

25-30    (50)*

Local value

<15

<25

Tabell 2. Valuation of grasslands/Meadows based on grassland-fungi developed by Jordal & Gaarder (1993, 1997*), with later adjustments of score-limits*.

 

This method requires extensive knowledge about the different types of grassland-fungi, and will often require microscopy to determine many of the species. However, the selection of species are larger and the valuation may be safer.

Today it is common practice to use red list categories valuing an area. Finding species in the categories critically endangered (CR) and/or endangered (EN) categories will often cause the area to be considered very important (A area), while the occurrence of vulnerable species (VU) or more near threatened species (NT ) will give the location status important (B area). Localities that are less rich may still be important locally, and may then be named locally important (C area). (Dir. Nat. 2007)                    

 

Grassland-fungi in South-Western Norway

 

Most of the fungi presented with pictures on the website have been found by the author in various municipalities in South-Western Norway, mainly Stord, Fitjar, Tysnes, Sveio and Bømlo. (Moe & Fadnes 2008, Fadnes 2008, Fadnes 2011a, Fadnes 2011b, Fadnes 2013, Fadnes 2015). With some exception, the overview is limited to species found here. Many of the species found here are also rare in Norway. The municipalities in South-Western Norway therefore have a special responsibility to preserve the areas that have this vast diversity. The most important way to preserve high diversity is to continue the maintenance of the areas with grazing by animals and to avoid fertilizers. One particular grassland has been suveyed for 20 years (2003-2022), and shows variation i finds from one year to the other, and several grasslandfungi are seldom and have irregular fructification (Fadnes 2023).

The table below gives an overview of the finds of grassland-fungi in the different municipalities (after 2002/1998) for the different genera/families. The table shows that the knowledge about the diversity of fungi in the cultural landscape is considerably expanded compared with what was previously known. In most municipalities, almost no grassland-fungi were registered before 2000, and the vast majority known were only ordinary or less seldom species.
The table also shows a change in the number of redlisted species (), which previously were near to zero.

 

 

   Stord

   Fitjar

  Tysnes

   Sveio

  Bømlo

År

2002

2022

2002

2019

2002

2018

2002

2018

1998

2018

Waxcaps

(Hygrocybe)

11(2)

35(16)

0

29(13)

1

30(14)

0

24(9)

0

36(19)

Earth-tongues

(Geoglossaceae)

3(1)

15(6)

1

6(2)

4(1)

10(5)

0

8(3)

0

14(8)

Pinkgills

(Entoloma)

4(1)

34(16)

0

13(8)

1

18(9)

0

11(4)

1(1)

32(19)

Camarophyllopsis

0

4(4)

0

1(1)

0

1(1)

0

1(1)

0

3(3)

 Porpoloma

1(1)

1(1)

0

1(1)

0

1(1)

0

1(1)

0

1(1)

 Dermoloma

0

1(1)

0

1(1)

0

1(1)

0

0

0

0

Club-fungi

(Clavaria)

0

10(7)

1(1)

3(3)

0

6(4)

0

4(2)

0

6(5)
Lamelloclavaria

0

1(1)

                

Ramariopsis

0

1(1)

0

0

1(1)

1(1)

0

0

0

1(1)

Clavulinopsis

0

5(1)

0

2

0

6(1)

0

2

0

4

Totaltall

19(5)

107(54)

2(1)

56(30)

7(2)

74(37)

0

51(20)

1(1) 

97(56)

 

Tabell 3. Finds of grasslandfungi before and after 2003/1998 from five municipalities in Sout-western Norway. ()-number of redlisted species)

 

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